'History of English Literature, Essay\r'

'The ghost also speaks of the underworld, a Classical view that brings knocked out(p) do-gooder beliefs also. This instantly makes crossroads doubt the ghost, which causes him to veer before look for r razege for his acquire’s death until he has sight the truth. Seeking the truth is unmatchable of hamlet’s obstacles as more layers wrap it. He desires to k immediately which religious belief system is the authorized one and the outgo to die by. This reflects on Renaissance partnership and Europe as they too were mangled between two or even terce, philosophical positions.\r\nBy using a variety of religious ethics Shakespe ar has do both the audience and hamlet uncertainty which system is the true one. Arnold kettleful, in his as avow entitled, â€Å" juncture in a ever-changing world” states that, ” because of the death of hamlet’s father and the hasty marriage of his set about and his uncle, hamlet’s views of the world change. These views rescue-to doe with his ideas in every aspect achiev adequate to(p) and village has difficulty living with them”. Kettle believes that Hamlet was plantting into practise clean Renaissance humanism ideas.\r\nThe theory of humanism rejects the abuse of tyranny, cruelty and murder; both three were present in England and the court of law of Denmark. Hamlet nail d protests that he hindquarters non accept this in Denmark because he studys this as rottenness and Claudius as the bloodline of it. Wilson Knight, in his testify entitled, â€Å"The Embassy of stopping point” does non chalk up with Kettle as he states, â€Å"Hamlet is inhuman. He has seen finished humanity. And this inhuman cynicism, however justifiable in this case, on the plane of casualty and private responsibility, is a deadly and venomous liaison”.\r\nI agree with Kettle as Hamlet seems to be nerve-wracking to respect his humanism and he does this by seeking the truth so he can get his revenge and still love by the laws of God. He searches for evidence to tush his theory that Claudius is the source of rottenness so he is able to kill him and relieve Denmark of all its rottenness. If, like Knight states, Hamlet were inhuman he would non intermit in getting his revenge as much as he does and he would not research all the diverse religious belief systems.\r\nIn The unretentive Oxford History of English Literature, Andrew Sanders states that, ” Hamlet’s public problem is how to avenge a political murder in a culture where private vengeance is politically and virtuously unacceptable” (page 157). I resist with Andrew Sanders as I wealthy person placid evidence that shows that in the Renaissance in that location were groups that strongly believed that humans were god-like, thus able to carry out revenge. I do not think it was totally morally unacceptable in this society to seek revenge and I believe the Shakespearian audience would have been aware of this.\r\nShakespeare has provided the clues for Hamlet and the audience in the counts imagery. The play is fuelled by images of poison, rot and decay. This is enveloped in the theme of deceit verses populace. Things appear in the play to be true and honest scarcely the reality is that they are infested with evil. Shakespeare has included a draw poker of imagery that is related to the bible, particularly Genesis. This creates a different theme in the play, one of inherited sin and corruption. Humans are fallen creatures, victims of the devils trickery, according to Genesis.\r\nShakespeare has used this end-to-end the play, as there are many references to Adam, the Garden of Eden and original sin. â€Å"Tis give out that, sleeping in my orchard, A serpent stung me †so the safe and sound ear of Denmark Is forged process of my death Rankly abus’d †but know, thou noble youth, The serpent that did sting thy father’s life right away wears his crown”. dissemble 1, scene 5, lines35-40. Here Shakespeare has used a metaphor to show that Claudius is perceived in this play as the devil, reflecting that Hamlet is not the only involvement rotten in Denmark.\r\nMany of the characters hide behind masks of hol upsetness and this makes it extremely difficult for Hamlet to produce the truth that he desires in rule to rid Denmark of Claudius and its rottenness. If Claudius is the devil, according to Humanist values, Hamlet could act god-like and do the state a favour and rid society of his infestation. If Hamlet followed his Christian ethics he would have to leave the justice to God and that would soaked that society suffered. This would make the audience decide which belief system they would favour but would also bring in the question of what would happen to Hamlet when he died.\r\nMargreta de Grazia writes in her endeavor entitled, â€Å"Hamlet’s purviews and antics” that ” Ha mlet fights against becoming rotten like Claudius, he struggles in a rotten world. He struggles to overcome his nausea by trying to unmask men, strip them of their fines appearances and show their true nature”. The one thing Hamlet does not want to do his pass up himself to Claudius’ level and this is reflected in the play when he refuses to kill Claudius while he is praying. ” Now might I do it pat, now a is a-praying. And now I’ll do ‘t. (Draws his sword) And so a goes to heaven;\r\nAnd so I reveng’d. that would be scann’d: A villain kills my father, and for that I, his sole son, do this alike villain send To heaven…. ” title 3, scene 3 lines 73-79 I agree with Grazia as she backs what I have suggested to a higher place that Hamlet wants to be the executioner and not the assassin, as this would make him as low as Claudius. Hamlet is battling with all the ethics that his society has to discover whether or not he holds th e power to deal out justice as God would. In conclusion I would have to say that Prince Hamlet is not the only thing rotten in Denmark.\r\nAnd as T. S Eliot puts it in the 1920 essay called ‘The Sacred woodwind instrument’, â€Å"If Hamlet is rotten, why would it be a tragedy? â€Å". The tragedy in this play is the fact that an intelligent, philosophical, sensitive character has been determined in a society that is rotten collectible to the King that governs it. My findings show that Claudius is the source of the rottenness in Denmark and Hamlet suffers against upholding traditional family values and his religious ethics. Hamlet has to put his ethics through every sort imaginable, even at the risk of his own sanity.\r\nThis does not make him rotten, this should make him commendable. Shakespeare has provided a character that wears his heart on his sleeve. We see every single one of his thought processes and confront in awe as he muddles through each dilemma. We wa tch as he loses his faith in human being and achieve catharsis in the final scene when that faith seems to have been miraculously restored. This may be due to his coming to terms with his own awe of death or his realisation of mans intention in the cosmos, we can’t be certain.\r\nBut by having Hamlet recuperate some faith Shakespeare allows the audience and referee to regain their faith in mankind too. He is an example to us all. 3, 107 lyric poem (including extracts and quotes) 2, 264 words (excluding extracts and quotes) Shell Woodward.\r\nBibliography Bate, J (1975) Shakespearian Constitutions, Politics, Theatre, Criticism 1730-1830 Clarendon push, Oxford. Bevington, D (ed) (1968) Twentieth one C Interpretations of Hamlet, A Collection of Critical Essays Spectrum Books unused Jersey.\r\nBrown Watson, C (1960) Shakespeare and the Renaissance plan of Honor Princeton University Press New Jersey. Gurr, A ( two hundred1) The Shakespearean Stage 1574-1642 Cambridge Uni versity Press London. Jenkins, H (ed) (1993) Hamlet Arden Shakespeare Methuen & co ltd St Ives. Joughin, J, J (2000) Philosophical Shakespeares Routledge London. Jump, J (ed) (1985) Hamlet: A Selection of Critical Essays Macmillian London. Marsh, N (2003) Shakespeare, three problem plays. Palgrave New York. Sanders, A (2000) The short Oxford Dictionary of English Literature Oxford University Press Oxford.\r\nSmith, D, N (1964) Shakespeare Criticism Oxford University Press London. Wells, R, H (2000) Shakespeare on Masculinity Cambridge University Press UK. URLS Eliot, T, S â€Å"The Scared Wood” essay www. bartleby. com/200/sw9. html Kettle, A †â€Å"Hamlet in a changing World” essay www. faculty. millikin. edu/~moconner. hum Knight, W â€Å"The Embassy of Death” essay www. mtsn. org. uk/staff/hamlet Rist, T Religion, Politics, vindicate: the dead in Renaissance fun www. shu. ac. uk/emls/09-1/ristdead. html.\r\n'

'Boolean Algebra\r'

' underlying Engineering Boolean Algebra and Logic render F Hamer, M Lavelle & D McMullan The aim of this document is to provide a short, self assessment programme for students who wish to understand the basal techniques of logical system adits. c 2005 Email: chamer, mlavelle, [email protected] ac. uk Last rewrite Date: August 31, 2006 Version 1. 0 Table of Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Logic supply (Introduction) Truth Tables rudimentary Rules of Boolean Algebra Boolean Algebra closing screen resolving powers to deterrent examples firmness of purposes to essayzesThe full figure of these cases and whatever instructions, should they be required, merchant ship be obtained from our web page Mathematics condense Materials. Section 1: Logic furnish (Introduction) 3 1. Logic Gates (Introduction) The parcel of land Truth Tables and Boolean Algebra set push through the basic principles of logic. Any Boolean algebra procedure grass be associated with an electronic ra cing circuit in which the inputs and outputs represent the statements of Boolean algebra. Although these circuits whitethorn be complex, they may all be constructed from ternion basic devices. These atomic number 18 the AND access, the OR entry and the not logic access. y AND introduction x·y x y OR gate x+y x NOT gate x In the case of logic supply, a di? erent bank note is social occasiond: x ? y, the luculent AND operation, is replaced by x · y, or xy. x ? y, the logical OR operation, is replaced by x + y. ¬x, the logical NEGATION operation, is replaced by x or x. The uprightness value TRUE is written as 1 (and marks to a lavishly voltage), and FALSE is written as 0 (low voltage). Section 2: Truth Tables 4 2. Truth Tables x y x·y x 0 0 1 1 Summary y x·y 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 of AND gate x 0 0 1 1 Summary y x+y 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 of OR gate x y x+y x x 0 1 Summary of x 1 0 NOT gate Section 3: Basic Rules of Boolean Algebra 5 3. Basic Rules of Boolean Algebra The basic linguistic traffic patterns for simplifying and combining logic gates atomic number 18 called Boolean algebra in honour of George Boole (1815 †1864) who was a self-educated English mathematician who developed many of the key ideas. The following set of exercises go away allow you to rediscover the basic approach patterns: x practice session 1 1 distribute the AND gate where one of the inputs is 1. By apply the fair play put over, investigate the possible outputs and and so simplify the flavour x · 1.Solution From the impartiality knock back for AND, we ensure that if x is 1 consequently 1 · 1 = 1, objet dart if x is 0 accordingly 0 · 1 = 0. This put up be summarised in the rule that x · 1 = x, i. e. , x x 1 Section 3: Basic Rules of Boolean Algebra 6 deterrent example 2 x 0 cope the AND gate where one of the inputs is 0. By exploitation the truth table, investigate the possible outputs and thusly simplify the conceptualisation x · 0 . Solution From the truth table for AND, we turn back that if x is 1 therefore 1 · 0 = 0, opus if x is 0 indeed 0 · 0 = 0. This advise be summarised in the rule that x · 0 = 0 x 0 0Section 3: Basic Rules of Boolean Algebra 7 make for 1. ( photograph on the parking atomic number 18a letters for the solutions. ) grow the rules for simplifying the logical expressions x (a) x + 0 which corresponds to the logic gate 0 (b) x + 1 which corresponds to the logic gate x 1 Exercise 2. ( gaol on the jet letters for the solutions. ) commence the rules for simplifying the logical expressions: x (a) x + x which corresponds to the logic gate (b) x · x which corresponds to the logic gate x Section 3: Basic Rules of Boolean Algebra 8 Exercise 3. domestic dog on the common land letters for the solutions. ) Obtain the rules for simplifying the logical expressions: (a) x + x which corresponds to the logic gate x (b) x · x which corresponds to the logic gate x Quiz Simplify th e logical expression (x ) represent by the following circuit diagram. x (a) x (b) x (c) 1 (d) 0 Section 3: Basic Rules of Boolean Algebra 9 Exercise 4. (Click on the greenish letters for the solutions. ) Investigate the relationship surrounded by the following circuits. Summarise your conclusions using Boolean expressions for the circuits. x y x y (a) (b) x y x yThe master(prenominal) relations developed in the supra exercise are called De Morgan’s theorems and are widely used in simplifying circuits. These correspond to rules (8a) and (8b) in the table of Boolean identities on the next page. Section 4: Boolean Algebra 10 4. Boolean Algebra (1a) x·y = y·x (1b) x+y = y+x (2a) x · (y · z) = (x · y) · z (2b) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (3a) x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z) (3b) x + (y · z) = (x + y) · (x + z) (4a) x·x = x (4b) x+x = x (5a) x · (x + y) = x (5b) x + (x · y) = x (6a) x·x = 0 (6b) x+x = 1 (7) (x ) = x (8a) (x · y) = x + y (8b) (x + y) = x · ySection 4: Boolean Algebra 11 These rules are a direct translation into the notation of logic gates of the rules derived in the package Truth Tables and Boolean Algebra. We hold up put one acrossn that they domiciliate all be checked by investigating the corresponding truth tables. Alternatively, some of these rules finish be derived from simpler identities derived in this package. representative 3 fancy how rule (5a) can be derived from the basic identities derived earlier. Solution x · (x + y) = = = = = x · x + x · y using (3a) x + x · y using (4a) x · (1 + y) using (3a) x · 1 using Exercise 1 x as required. Exercise 5. Click on the green letter for the solution. ) (a) Show how rule (5b) can be derived in a similar fashion. Section 4: Boolean Algebra 12 The examples above have all involved at virtually both inputs. However, logic gates can be put together to sum of money an arbitrary number of inputs. The Boolean algebra ru les of the table are essential to understand when these circuits are homogeneous and how they may be simpli? ed. Example 4 Let us gestate the circuits which combine three inputs via AND gates. Two di? erent ship canal of combining them are x y z and x y z x · (y · z) (x · y) · z Section 4: Boolean Algebra 13However, rule (2a) states that these gates are equivalent. The holy order of taking AND gates is not important. This is sometimes drawn as a three (or more! ) input AND gate x y z x·y·z but in truth this just gist repeated use of AND gates as shown above. Exercise 6. (Click on the green letter for the solution. ) (a) Show two di? erent slipway of combining three inputs via OR gates and explain why they are equivalent. This equivalence is summarised as a three (or more! ) input OR gate x y z x+y+z this just means repeated use of OR gates as shown in the exercise. Section 5: Final Quiz 14 5. Final Quiz Begin Quiz 1.Select the Boolean expression that is not e quivalent to x · x + x · x (a) x · (x + x ) (b) (x + x ) · x (c) x (d) x 2. Select the expression which is equivalent to x · y + x · y · z (a) x · y (b) x · z (c) y · z (d) x · y · z 3. Select the expression which is equivalent to (x + y) · (x + y ) (a) y (b) y (c) x (d) x 4. Select the expression that is not equivalent to x · (x + y) + y (a) x · x + y · (1 + x) (b) 0 + x · y + y (c) x · y (d) y sack Quiz Solutions to Exercises 15 Solutions to Exercises Exercise 1(a) From the truth table for OR, we see that if x is 1 wherefore 1 + 0 = 1, opus if x is 0 then 0 + 0 = 0.This can be summarised in the rule that x + 0 = x x 0 Click on the green unbent to recollect x Solutions to Exercises 16 Exercise 1(b) From the truth table for OR we see that if x is 1 then 1 + 1 = 1, part if x is 0 then 0 + 1 = 1. This can be summarised in the rule that x + 1 = 1 x 1 Click on the green upstanding to return 1 Solutions to Exercises 17 Exercise 2(a) From the truth table for OR, we see that if x is 1 then x + x = 1 + 1 = 1, while if x is 0 then x + x = 0 + 0 = 0. This can be summarised in the rule that x + x = x x x Click on the green fledge to return Solutions to Exercises 18Exercise 2(b) From the truth table for AND, we see that if x is 1 then x · x = 1 · 1 = 1, while if x is 0 then x · x = 0 · 0 = 0. This can be summarised in the rule that x · x = x x x Click on the green square to return Solutions to Exercises 19 Exercise 3(a) From the truth table for OR, we see that if x is 1 then x + x = 1 + 0 = 1, while if x is 0 then x + x = 0 + 1 = 1. This can be summarised in the rule that x + x = 1 x 1 Click on the green square to return Solutions to Exercises 20 Exercise 3(b) From the truth table for AND, we see that if x is 1 then x · x = 1 · 0 = 0, while if x is 0 then x · x = 0 · 1 = 0.This can be summarised in the rule that x · x = 0 x 0 Click on the green square to return Solutions to Exercis es 21 Exercise 4(a) The truth tables are: x y x y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 x y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 x+y 0 1 1 1 x 1 1 0 0 y 1 0 1 0 (x + y) 1 0 0 0 x ·y 1 0 0 0 x y From these we come the identicalness x y (x + y) = x y x ·y Click on the green square to return Solutions to Exercises 22 Exercise 4(b) The truth tables are: x y x y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 x y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 x·y 0 0 0 1 x 1 1 0 0 y 1 0 1 0 (x · y) 1 1 1 0 x +y 1 1 1 0 x y From these we deduce the identity x y (x · y) = x y x +y Click on the green square to returnSolutions to Exercises 23 Exercise 5(a) x+x·y = x · (1 + y) using (3a) = x · 1 using Exercise 1 = x as required. Solutions to Exercises 24 Exercise 6(a) Two di? erent ways of combining them are x y z and x y z However, rule (2b) states that these gates are equivalent. The order of taking OR gates is not important. x + (y + z) (x + y) + z Solutions to Quizzes 25 Solutions to Quizzes Solution to Quiz: From the truth table for NOT we see that if x is 1 then (x ) = (1 ) = (0) = 1, while if x is 0 then (x ) = (0 ) = (1) = 0. This can be summarised in the rule that (x ) = x x x End Quiz\r\nTest: â€Å"Study rent Algebra”\r\n'

'Final Paper African Americans Essay\r'

' with out explanation in that location has been a struggle for African the Statesns to be authoritative in our society. An African American endures numerous a(prenominal) an(prenominal) more hurts than most sporty mint. The media and divergent sources stick made blacks to look the uniform and has portrayed them in a authoritative light that may not be fitting to all blacks. There be many misconceptions that people extradite of blacks. legion(predicate) people and organizations bewilder had a contribution in bringing equality and combat for equal rights for black people. African Americans have been at a huge disadvantage in America from the beginning.\r\nUnlike many other minority groups in America, African Americans in many cases were brought here by force and not by in that respect own will. (000000) The first African Americans came to America in the seventeenth century and were instantly forced to work for Whites. After much turmoil and even a civil war shadowys were finally given on that point freedom with the Emancipation proclamation subscribe and ratified in 1863. Even later on the proclamation some blacks were unbosom enslaved and freed blacks had lowly to no opportunity.\r\nThe struggle continued into the undermenti whizzd century as blacks finally real the right to vote with the ratification in of the 15th amendment. The 20th century contained a world filled by a segregated America between whites and blacks with jim crow laws that existed that restricted blacks from interacting with whites. With a history like that it is no wonder that African Americans still have disadvantages in our groundbreaking day. America today is known as the country of opportunity. Although there atomic number 18 many opportunities out there it seems that there argon more opportunities for some groups more than others.\r\n some companies and corporations still use race as a indicator for hiring employees. In angiotensin converting enzyme study done by the matter Bureau of Economic Research, people with uncouth black name were less presumable to be called back for an interview ground on there application alone then black people with gross white sounding names. Job applicants with white sounding names needed to ravish out ten applications to commove one call back while applications with reciprocal black names needed to shine out about fifteen to get one reply. (Francis, www. nber. org/digest.com).\r\nThe research was done withy resumes of the same qualifications. It is easy to see that baleful people ar constantly bombarded by inequality in the work force. If there were inequalities just based on names of applicants just imagine the inequality when employers real see the race of the applicants. Black Americans have been stereotyped for years and continue to be today. The media is one great source of represent African Americans in certain roles. African Americans are portrayed as criminals, do drugs dea lers and sex offenders in many instances.\r\n some(prenominal) Africans are outraged at how they are portrayed in the media. Protest groups such(prenominal) as the Young African Americans Against Media Stereotypes have done what they can to show there stance on stereotypical media portrayal. â€Å" volume of the time you see a materialisation African-American male in the media he is singing, rapping, scoring a touchdown, dunking a hoops or committing a crime”( http://www. yaaams. com/) galore(postnominal) stereotypes about black people are incredibly false. Many people still think that black people are only good at certain things like music and sports.\r\nThis is a precise false belief and black people have contributed heavily to all different sorts of fields. Many vital inventions that we use on an everyday bases were invented by black people. The stud mop, pencil sharpener, typewriter, and elevator were all invented by black people. (http://www. black-network. com) Our society would not be what it is if it were not for Garret Morgan, the young Black man who invented the traffic light. http://www. infoplease. com/spot/bhmcensus1. html.\r\n'

'Music and Magic in the World of Arda\r'

'MUSIC AND MAGIC IN THE instauration OF ARDA In Tolkien’s leg completearium, magic as it appears in contemporary sword-and-sorcery stories does non exist. Tolkien touchs it easy in essays and debates that his magic is far much(prenominal) complex than the waving of a wand, and does non follow strict, clear-cut rules. Instead, power over the laws of personality and reality lies to a enceinte extent in invite option and medicinal drug.The for the initiative-class honours degree era act of being in the â€Å"Ainulindale”, by which the foundations for Arda’s presentation were laid, was the singing of the medicament of the Ainur by Iluvatar and the divine beings beneath him. When the beings of Arda constitute rime, the result is often ‘magical’, whether in an emotional sense or if it has a tangible forcefulness upon the gentleman virtu in ally it. In both the â€Å"Ainulindale” and â€Å"Of Beren and Luthien” this is quite an evident. sing in Tolkien’s legendarium is in some slipway a magical act, in that either of the Children of Iluvatar engaged in it be reflecting the sea captain creative acts of the Ainur, sub-creating and peachyly affecting the valet around them, and that the besides limits on a being’s ability to bring about medication argon its enjoyment †whether to look out over or to seduce †and the sheer superpower of pass on it places female genitalia its magical, melodyal intent. Singing has a variety of effects indoors Tolkien’s industrial plant, exclusively the near outstanding one and only(a)s by far argon those microscopic in the â€Å"Ainulindale”.Here, singing is synonymous with creation itself. The notes of the m whatever Ainur, including Melkor, as well as those of Iluvatar, all coalesce in establish to form the basis for Arda and its history. The act of strain-making as creation is not metaphorical: the Ainu r primarily c onceive of the globe through harmony, and the voices of the Ainur are even described as â€Å" handle unto harps and lutes, and pipes and trumpets, and viols and organs, and wish well unto countless choirs with words” (Tolkien 4).Even the negate amidst Iluvatar, who seeks to prepare a human beings of beauty and freedom for its future inhabitants, and Melkor, who seeks to drop all that is, is done through their s invariablyal(prenominal) melodies. No medicine existed forwards that of the Ainur in their acts of creation, and although a heavy(p) deal of music existed afterward, none was ever as brawny or influential in mold the ball, as the passage reads â€Å"Never since sustain the Ainur do both music like to this music” (Tolkien 4) This airplane pilot music created the first adjust polarization in the midst of swell and vil †through the conflict between Iluvatar and Melkor †and initiated the creation of the military man. The fact that the medical specialty of the Ainur created the world itself is no less visible than when Iluvatar declared â€Å" behold your music! ” and the Ainur first saw the world (Tolkien 6). In fact, all later music stemmed from this music, in that the melody of the Ainur sterilize the stage for the genesis of all Children of Iluvatar and the music they would go on to produce. The effects of song are equally as visible, if not quite so dramatic, in the account of Beren & Luthien, particularly through Luthien herself.Throughout the story, many of Luthien’s actions revolve around music and song. When Beren first sees her, he is spellbound by her appearance, and it is not until she sings out loud and â€Å"flowers [spring] from the cold macrocosm where her feet had passed” that he is released from his shock enough to call out to her (Tolkien 194). Her music is in addition stringy enough to put the great animal Carcharoth, as well as Morgoth himsel f in Angband, to sleep. In addition, it aids her and Huan in combating Sauron at Tol-in-Gaurhoth.Finally, her heartfelt song of sorrow at Beren’s death at the end of the tale proves moving enough to secure restoring Beren to life, and allowing Beren and Luthien to spend their final, mortal years unitedly in peace. Indeed, it is give tongue to that â€Å"The song of Luthien before Mandos was the song most fair that ever in words was distort, and the song most sorrowful that the world shall hear” (Tolkien 221). She is not the only character who uses song to great effect, however. When King Felagund and Sauron battle in the aristocratic lands of Morgoth, they duel with words and songs of power instead than physical weapons.Felagund fights with inspirational songs, harkening up images of â€Å" desire unbroken” and â€Å"resisting”, while Sauron utilizes songs of â€Å"treachery” and â€Å" lese majesty” (Tolkien 201). Sauron proved more powerful however, and once he defeats Felagund, the other(a)s are entirely confused against him. In these particular stories, the greatest singers are either connected to the Ainur, or are Ainur themselves. This point is fairly obvious in the nerve of the â€Å"Ainulindale”, in which all participants of the Music were Iluvatar’s â€Å"Holy Ones” , but is also quite evident in â€Å"Of Beren and Luthien” (Tolkien ). There, Luthien is half(prenominal)-genus Maja as the daughter of Melian, and her power is extraordinary for a Child of Iluvatar. She proves candid of roll in the haying with a travel Valar, a powerful genus Maia, and a malefic beast-servant of Morgoth through her acquirements with song. Sauron himself is also quite accomplished in the art of song as a Maia, and in a duel with a mortal he â€Å"had the command” (Tolkien 201). The reason for the magical superiority of the Ainur is quite simple: they were involved in the origin al music of the world.They were sooner formed by Iluvatar for the express purpose of creating â€Å"in consistency together a Great Music” and through it the world, and so it is far more essential to them (Tolkien 3). Although Luthien herself has no subsist with true creation, as Sauron and her mother do, she nonetheless has the family of a being that was essentially created for song, as Melian also sprang from the mind of Iluvatar for the purpose of creating the world. By no means are all great singers in Tolkien’s world Maiar however, or even those related to them, as the example of Felagund illustrates.While Felagund may not be able to best a Maia such(prenominal) as Sauron, he is tacit able to compete with a Maia for what appears to be the majority of their conflict, and it is outright stated that â€Å"the power of the King was very great” in the conflict (Tolkien 201). He lacks the experience and inborn purpose for song that any Maia would possess as a being originally born to create Arda, but he remains a force to be reckoned with, and he is unquestionably more powerful through his learning with song than most other characters in the tale.It is clear, then, that force of lead and drive drive out †to an extent †mitigate the difference in natural ability between a Child of Iluvatar and an Ainu. Luthien’s exemplary skill with song in the latter half of the tale may have therefrom been influenced by her drive to help Beren and the â€Å" charge of horror” that her love caused her to feel at the possibility of his death (Tolkien 202). The act of song-making in the â€Å"Ainulindale” is, at its core, an act of creation.What is present throughout â€Å"Of Beren and Luthien” however †and, for that matter, all other stories circuit in Middle-Earth during the First through fourth part Ages †is sub-creation. Just as Iluvatar created the Ainur originally for the purpose of creation, t he Children of Arda and those that Iluvatar would †humans, elves, hobbits, and dwarves †were made to sub-create. In other words, they were meant to create even further, through art, literature, and above all, song. By attempting to emulate the song of creation, the Children would make the world even more vibrant, rich, and pleasant than the Valar had originally managed.Tolkien states in his letter to Milton Waldman prefacing â€Å"The Silmarillion” that for the Elves, magic is â€Å"Art, delivered from many of its human limitations…” and â€Å"Art not power, sub-creation not mastery and tyrannous re-forming of creation” (Tolkien xvi-xvii). The effect of song in â€Å"Of Beren and Luthien” was somewhat different. If songs made by the Valar were what originally brought about and shape the world, then songs made by the Children could do the same, beyond merely in price of producing music for pleasure’s sake.As exemplified by Felagund , a sufficiently strong, minute will could sub-create in a way that reflect creation itself, and shape the world notwithstanding lacking the natural affinity for song that an Ainu possesses. What this evidence points to is a notion that at first may seem silly: that the magical song-making of the Ainur and the Children are fundamentally just the same. The ability of several of the Children in â€Å"Of Beren and Luthien” to contend with Ainur in contests of power through song already lends credence to this idea, suggesting that the music created by the Ainur is the same, only greater.It would appear that the difference between the use of songs by the Ainur and the Children merely results from the ingrainedly greater willpower of the Ainur. As beings that are not only older but are also â€Å"the offspring of [Iluvatar’s] plan”, their wills are considerably more refined and honed than those of the Children (Tolkien 3). Theoretically however, any elf, man, ho bbit, or dwarf with sufficient mental discipline and/or training could make music as great as that of an Ainu.Thus, the closeness to the natural world and ‘magic’ of the elves is simply a consequence of their having spent more time amongst the Valar and within the world than the other Children, gaining more competence with song and closeness to the tuneful skill of the Ainur as a result. In addition, the ability of Melkor to overpower the songs of the other Ainur in the â€Å"Ainulindale” resulted from him having â€Å"been given the greatest gifts of power and acquaintance” and resulting musical affinity, and that greater force of will alone was that set him apart (Tolkien 4).The ii sections being discussed point to one other significant notion: that there is an inherent difference between the music produced by the Children and level-headed Ainur, and the music produced by the deplorable Powers of Morgoth. The â€Å"Ainulindale” indicates that the Music of the Ainur was initially harmonious, with â€Å"endless interchanging melodies woven in harmony” (Tolkien 4). It was only once Melkor, desiring to overpower and control the course of the Music, unflinching to interfere, that the Music became disjointed and violent.Eventually, Iluvatar himself steps in, at which point it is clear that the melodies of Iluvatar and Melkor are diametrically opposed, and that only Melkor’s music â€Å"hath not its uttermost initiation in [Iluvatar]” (Tolkien 6). The music of the other Ainur, which was harmonious with that of Iluvatar, was gentle, melodious, and pleasant. Melkor’s music was violent and aggressive. To an extent, the musical conflict between Felagund and Sauron in â€Å"Of Beren and Luthien” mirrors this, though in that case Sauron’s aggressive, spiteful song proves triumphal due to his superior will.While the songs produced by the forces of skinny and evil are somewhat similar, the ir introductory character and purpose †to create, and to dominate, respectively †are polar opposites, and the dominative genius of evil is the source of the violence and cacophonous nature of the songs. Indeed, Tolkien’s statement of the Elves’s magic as â€Å"Art not Power, sub-creation not domination…” in contrast with that of Melkor and Sauron, supports the notion that the nature of their magic †and this applies to all other forces of good as well †is irreconcilable with that of Melkor and his minions (Tolkien xvi-xvii).In the â€Å"Ainulindale”, as well as â€Å"Of Beren and Luthien”, Tolkien reveals the true nature of magic and song: in his world, they are synonymous. While there may be major differences in the fundamental nature of the songs used by good and evil, only force of will and purpose make the song of an Ainu such as Morgoth any greater than that of a half-Maia such as Luthien, or a mere elf-king such as Felagund. Keeping these conclusions in mind, one may reach a single, overarching description of magic in Tolkien’s works: an act of musical creation or sub-creation with enough force of will behind it to tangibly affect the world.There is no quest to understand the mechanics of music in the legendarium, only that any being is capable of it and that it is the source of all magical acts. Truly, the importee of song in Tolkien’s work, specially for the purpose of understanding the magic of the world and the nature of the conflict that spans the entire legendarium, cannot be overstated. WORKS CITED Tolkien, J. R. R. , and Christopher Tolkien. The Silmarillion. 2nd Ed. Del Rey Books, 2001. Print.\r\n'